This module revisits John Locke to explore modern social contract theory. Professor Shapiro discusses how contemporary theorists secularize Locke's views and adapt them to reject natural rights. The lecture introduces Robert Nozick's theory of mutual protective associations and emphasizes the significance of coercive force in establishing legitimacy. Students engage with the hypothetical social contract, considering the implications for modern governance and the role of individual consent.
The course begins with an introduction by Professor Shapiro, outlining the syllabus and the central question: What makes a government legitimate? The first session highlights five key traditions in political thought, including three from the Enlightenment and two encompassing anti-Enlightenment and democratic perspectives. Students are introduced to the Eichmann problem as a preliminary case study for exploring these ideas.
This module focuses on the trial of Adolf Eichmann, as analyzed by Hannah Arendt. Students discuss the discomfort surrounding Eichmann's actions as a Nazi officer and Israel's response to him. The discussion raises critical questions about governmental legitimacy, exploring whether the Third Reich was illegitimate and if Eichmann violated a higher moral law. Professor Shapiro connects these inquiries to the five traditions of political thought introduced previously.
In this module, Professor Shapiro delves into John Locke's contributions to the social contract tradition, setting a foundation for Enlightenment thought. The lecture discusses key concepts like the commitment to science in politics and the workmanship ideal. Students explore Locke's theological roots and the implications of individual rights and authority resistance. This foundational understanding is crucial for analyzing other Enlightenment theories throughout the course.
This module focuses on Jeremy Benthamâs classical utilitarianism as a pivotal Enlightenment theory. Professor Shapiro outlines the principle of utility, emphasizing that individuals seek pleasure and avoid pain. Students explore five characteristics of classical utilitarianism, including its deterministic nature and its focus on maximizing happiness for the majority. The discussion includes implications for government roles and the challenges of public goods and resource management.
Continuing the exploration of classical utilitarianism, Professor Shapiro discusses its distributive implications. The session focuses on the principle of diminishing marginal utility and critiques of this principle. Students analyze Bentham's arguments regarding wealth distribution and redistributive potential. The lecture connects these theories to contemporary issues, including economic policies, tax cuts, and global equity debates, fostering a practical understanding of utilitarian ethics.
This lecture introduces neoclassical utilitarianism as a shift from classical utilitarianism, discussing key economists like Vilfredo Pareto and Francis Edgeworth. The focus is on concepts such as indifference curves, transitivity, and the Pareto principle. Professor Shapiro explains how neoclassical utilitarianism avoids Bentham's interpersonal utility comparisons, creating a doctrine that supports the status quo rather than radical redistribution. Students engage with the implications for economic theory and policy.
In this module, Professor Shapiro examines John Stuart Mill's synthesis of rights and utility, which builds upon neoclassical utilitarianism. Mill's harm principle is a key focus, asserting that interference in individual liberty is only justified for self-protection. The lecture highlights Millâs contributions to free speech and the process of arriving at truth through argumentation. Discussions also address potential inconsistencies in Mill's application of his theories, encouraging critical engagement with his work.
This module addresses the ambiguities of Mill's harm principle, prompting discussions on its application and interpretation. Professor Shapiro raises questions about calculating harm, mens rea, and strict liability. Students engage with real-world issues such as prostitution, free trade, and discrimination, analyzing how political choices influence the calculation of harm. The lecture critiques the Enlightenment ideal of scientific politics, revealing the complexities of applying ethical principles to governance.
This module explores Karl Marx's theory of capitalism, focusing on how wealth is created at the micro level. Professor Shapiro outlines Marx's critique of Adam Smith's invisible hand and introduces his labor theory of value. Students examine key concepts including class distinctions, socially necessary labor time, and the dynamics of surplus labor. This foundational understanding of Marxâs critique of capitalism sets the stage for later discussions on exploitation and distributive justice.
Continuing with Marxian theory, this module discusses the concept of exploitation under capitalism. Professor Shapiro highlights how exploitation occurs regardless of individual well-being, emphasizing the systemic issues of capitalism. Key points include liquidity crises, monopolies, and the growing awareness among workers of their exploitation. The discussion culminates in Marx's vision of communism arising from socialism, emphasizing the necessity of superabundanceâa concept ultimately critiqued in light of scarcity realities.
This module examines the failures and legacies of Marxian theory. Professor Shapiro critiques Marx's predictions about worker-led revolutions and highlights flaws in his economic theories, including the state's role in supporting capitalism. The discussion also covers the lack of evidence for a declining rate of profit and the incoherence of the labor theory of value. Despite these shortcomings, Marx's critiques of markets and power dynamics contribute significantly to contemporary political discourse.
This module revisits John Locke to explore modern social contract theory. Professor Shapiro discusses how contemporary theorists secularize Locke's views and adapt them to reject natural rights. The lecture introduces Robert Nozick's theory of mutual protective associations and emphasizes the significance of coercive force in establishing legitimacy. Students engage with the hypothetical social contract, considering the implications for modern governance and the role of individual consent.
In this module, Professor Shapiro focuses on Nozick's concept of the minimal state, which emphasizes rights as side-constraints rather than goals. The lecture discusses the challenges of including independents in the social contract and the need for compensation without interpersonal comparisons of utility. Shapiro explores the Kantian principle "ought entails can" and raises questions about the legitimacy of state actions towards independents, delving into the tension between consent and rights violations.
This module builds on the previous discussions by examining Nozick's model of compensation versus redistribution. Professor Shapiro outlines Nozick's threefold account of justice: justice in acquisition, justice in transfer, and rectification of past injustices. The discussion emphasizes the tension between voluntary transactions and government intervention in wealth distribution. Students critically engage with Nozick's arguments about deep pluralism and the challenges of defining just distributions in society.
In this module, Professor Shapiro introduces John Rawls and his significant contributions to contemporary political philosophy. The class discusses Rawls's theory of justice, focusing on concepts like the original position and the veil of ignorance. These ideas encourage students to think about society's structure without biases related to their own circumstances. The lecture emphasizes Rawls's focus on resources and liberties as fundamental to justice, setting the stage for deeper discussions on democratic principles.
This module focuses on Rawls's third principle of justice, the difference principle, which advocates for the distribution of wealth to benefit the least advantaged. Professor Shapiro explores the implications of this principle, questioning its potential costs to others. The class discusses how Rawls separates empirical analysis from normative claims and the philosophical challenges of applying the difference principle in practice. Students critically assess the moral implications of Rawls's approach to justice.
In this concluding module on Rawls, Professor Shapiro examines the evolution of Rawls's thought towards a political, rather than metaphysical, approach. This shift signifies a departure from Enlightenment traditions, emphasizing the importance of overlapping consensus in shaping societal values. The lecture summarizes the Enlightenment's journey from Locke to contemporary theorists, addressing the challenges of individual rights and the limits of scientific reasoning. Students engage in discussions about the implications of this evolution for modern political thought.
This module introduces Edmund Burke's conservative perspective, focusing on his critique of the French Revolution and his views on social change. Professor Shapiro discusses Burke's belief in the social contract as a binding agreement across generations. The class explores the traditionalist-conservative rejection of Enlightenment principles, emphasizing the importance of societal traditions and the limitations of formulating theoretical foundations for governance. Students engage with contemporary implications of Burkean thought in current political discourse.
In this module, students explore contemporary communitarianism as an anti-Enlightenment perspective. Professor Shapiro introduces thinkers like Richard Rorty, who critique the Enlightenment's quest for indubitable premises. The lecture focuses on Alasdair MacIntyre's communitarianism, discussing symptoms of the Enlightenment's failures, such as moral subjectivism and instrumentalism. Students engage with MacIntyre's concepts of practices and virtues, examining how these ideas challenge Enlightenment individualism and emphasize community values in ethical considerations.
This module further explores MacIntyre's Aristotelian account of human psychology, emphasizing the teleological nature of human beings and the importance of community in achieving happiness. Professor Shapiro discusses how ethics are designed to facilitate the transition from untutored to realized human nature, highlighting the role of traditions in shaping individual identities. The class engages with critiques of Enlightenment thought, focusing on the limitations of deducing ethics from human nature while recognizing the potential for critical reflection within established norms.
This module marks the transition to a detailed examination of democracy and its institutions. Professor Shapiro argues that democracy successfully recognizes individual rights while providing a commitment to objective knowledge. The discussion includes the critiques of democracy by figures like Plato and Tocqueville, focusing on American democracy and concepts such as majority tyranny, factionalism, and the importance of checks and balances in governance. Students engage with historical and theoretical perspectives on democratic practices.
This module continues the examination of majority rule and democratic competition, questioning the legitimacy of collective decisions. Professor Shapiro discusses utilitarian justifications and the concept of the general will, as well as Arrow's paradox and its implications for voting systems. The class explores various models of democracy, including public choice theory and the median voter theorem, emphasizing the role of crosscutting cleavages in preventing tyranny and ensuring a balanced democratic process.
In this module, Professor Shapiro revisits Schumpeterâs minimalist conception of democracy, discussing its operationalization through the two turnover test. The lecture addresses the common expectation for democracy to deliver justice and the disappointment that can arise when it fails to do so. Students explore a synthesis of democracy and justice, with emphasis on collective self-governance and institutionalized opposition, ultimately examining how these principles can coexist in a just political system.
This final module applies the theory of democratic justice to real-world scenarios, particularly in governance contexts like parenting and workplace hierarchies. Professor Shapiro examines the balance of power and the role of the state as a fiduciary for children's interests, as well as the dynamics of workplace regulation based on exit costs. The discussion emphasizes how democratic principles can be practically implemented and the implications for future governance and societal structures.